Spring 2019

By Sarabeth Lowe, MPH Ms. Lowe is a Communication Specialist at the University of Delaware Disaster Research Center. Whether they are baked into a pie, sprinkled on top of oatmeal, or eaten by the bucket, berries are some of the most versatile foods on the planet. Hundreds of edible berry species exist across the world, and their unique texture, tart flavor, and bright colors have made them a cultural and culinary staple for thousands of years.1,2 In the last 2 decades, the popularity of and attention toward these fruits has increased as research continues to shed light on their health benefits.3 As summer approaches, marking peak berry season, here’s what you need to know. What Is a Berry? What do pumpkins, bananas, and pomegranates all have in common? It might surprise you that these are all berries and that some of the tried-and-true iconic names are not.4–7 The scientific and colloquial definitions of this fruit are not the same. The botanical definition is much more precise and based on how a plant’s flower and adjoining parts develop into fruit—not on its taste or appearance.6 “True berries” are simple fleshy fruits that stem from 1 flower with 1 ovary and typically have several seeds inside of them. Strawberries and raspberries aren’t true berries because they are derived from a single flower with more than 1 ovary.5 In this article, “berries” refers to small, soft, and colored fruits that are typically associated with the term. Berries by the Numbers: Nutrition at a Glance Berries pack a big punch when it comes to their nutritional value, making them one of the healthiest foods on the market. They are top sources of vitamins, minerals, and other essential nutrients, including potassium, magnesium, vita­mins C and K, and fiber.8–14 At the same time, they are relatively low in calories, carbohydrates, and natural sugars (Table 1). Health Benefits: Antioxidants Berries are nutritional powerhouses, but their main claim to fame is their antioxidant content.12,14–16 The antioxidant capacity of berries is 4 times higher than that of other fruits and 10 times higher than that of vegetables.14 In fact, blueberries, blackberries, and raspberries have some of the highest antioxidant activity of commonly consumed fruits.14 This might be due to the presence of anthocyanins, which confer the blue, purple, and red colors of many fruits.14,15,17 Anthocyanins are known to be one of the most powerful natural antioxidants, and berries are one of the richest sources of them among all fruits.17–19 Why is this so important? Antioxidants help your body fight off free radicals, unstable molecules in the body. Free radicals play an important and essential role in human health, but can damage your cells at high levels.15,20–23 When free radicals outnumber antioxidants, it can lead to oxidative stress, which causes damage to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), cells, and tissues. This imbalance can lead to a range of negative health outcomes and chronic conditions, including cancer, stroke, degenerative disorders, and metabolic and cardiovascular disease.11,23 It can also lead to chronic inflammation, another condition that has been linked to numerous negative health outcomes, and early signs of aging.17,22 Shopping and Storage Though berries can be bought year-round in many supermarkets, the season starts in the spring and peaks in the summer.24 However, berries are highly perishable—and expensive. When selecting berries at the grocery store, aim to purchase a container with ones that are firm, plump, and free of discoloration. To fully reap the health benefits of berries, the most important step is washing them, as research shows they are at high risk of contamination from pesticides and disease-causing microorganisms during their journey from farm to fork.25,26 Each year, the Environmental Working Group, an environmental advocacy organization, publishes an annual list of fruits and vegetables and ranks them as the most and least “pesticide-contaminated” produce commodities sold in the United States.25–27 In this year’s “Dirty Dozen,” which analyzed 47 types of produce, strawberries, blackberries, and blueberries top the list as the third, ninth, and twelfth most contaminated items, respectively.28 Notably, some food safety scientists and industry experts have scrutinized this list due to apparent gaps in its ranking methodology and unfairly demonizing certain types of produce. Still, the point stands: carefully and thoroughly wash berries before eating them. Locally grown berries are typically the freshest, so now is the time to dig in! If you’re looking to get outside this summer, berry picking can be a fun, family-friendly activity. Just be sure to do so safely, especially if you choose to forage in the wild. Adhere to any local regulations, avoid harvesting in polluted areas, and brush up on your plant identification skills or consult an expert to make sure the berries are safe and nontoxic; never consume berries that you have not identified as safe to eat with 100% certainty.1,29–32 Sources Bellows AC, Raj S, Pitstick E, et al. Foraging wild edibles: dietary diversity in expanded food systems. Nutrients. 2023;15(21):4630. Aguilera JM, Toledo T. Wild berries and related wild small fruits as traditional healthy foods. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2024;64(16):5603–5617. Palmer-Rubin B. The berry revolution: non-traditional agriculture and economic opportunity in Mexico. ReVista: Harvard Review of Latin America. 25 Feb 2024. Accessed 28 May 2026. https://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/the-berry-revolution-non-traditional-agriculture-and-economic-opportunity-in-mexico/ McVean, Lee C. Bananas are berries. Raspberries are not. McGill University Office for Science and Society. 6 Dec 2017. Accessed 28 May 2026. https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/did-you-know/bananas-are-berries-raspberries-are-no Lorge G. Bananas are berries? Stanford Magazine. 1 Jul 2023. Accessed 28 May 2026. https://stanfordmag.org/contents/bananas-are-berries What makes a berry a berry? University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources. 31 Aug 2024. Accessed 28 May 2026. https://ucanr.edu/blog/napa-master-gardener-column/article/what-makes-berry-berry Aguilera JM. Berries as Foods: Processing, products, and health implications. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol. 2024;15:1–26. Jain S, Sivapragasam N, Maurya A, et al. Edible berries – an update on nutritional composition and health benefits – part I. Curr Nutr Rep. 2025;14(1):7. Thorakkattu P, Jain S, Sivapragasam N, et al. Edible berries – an update on nutritional composition and health benefits – part II. Curr Nutr Rep. 2025;14(1):10. Sivapragasam N, Maurya A, Tiwari S, et

By Aliza Becker, BA, MPS Ms. Becker is the managing editor of The Journal of Innovations in Cardiac Rhythm Management, a freelance editor, and an instructor in the George Washington University’s MPS Publishing degree program. Honey—a sweet, natural substance produced by honeybees from flower nectar, plant secretions, or honeydew (a sugar-rich excretion of plant-sucking insects)1—has long been revered by humans as both a culinary luxury and a natural wonder. In Greek and Roman mythology, the infant Zeus (or Jupiter) was hidden in a cave to escape his child-devouring father, Cronus; there, nymphs fed him goat’s milk and honey to imbue him with strength and health.2 Similarly, the Old Testament records God’s promise to Moses to deliver the Israelites to “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Exodus 3:8). Beyond myth, researcher Alyssa Crittenden synthesizes ethnographic data, Paleolithic rock art, and nonhuman primate behavior to suggest that early hominins targeted wild beehives using the primitive Oldowan toolkit millions of years ago.3 Supporting this ancient connection, a prehistoric painting at the Cuevas de la Araña (Spider Caves) in Bicorp, Spain, dating back to roughly 8,000 BCE, provides what is widely considered the earliest known visual evidence of human honey-gathering.4 Meanwhile, archaeological excavations in Egypt5 and Italy6 have revealed concrete evidence of honey’s integral role in ancient burials and religious ceremonies. Evidence in temple carvings also indicates Egyptians engaged in organized beekeeping efforts as far back as 2,400 BCE.7 Today, honey is known to offer a variety of health benefits due to its diverse bioactive profile. Its high sugar density, low pH, and low moisture content prevent pathogen growth, while hydrogen peroxide produced enzymatically, along with other bioactive compounds, exerts antimicrobial effects that can support wound healing.8 Meanwhile, other compounds, including flavonoids and phenolic acids, confer anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacities.9 Research suggests its potential therapeutic applications in a variety of conditions, including cancer, diabetes, and asthma, and supports possible protective effects on the cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, and gastrointestinal systems.9 However, honey is not the only edible bee product to offer potential health benefits, and the growing movement toward health consciousness among consumers is leading many to explore other options. Propolis Propolis, referred to as “bee glue,” is produced by bees during hive construction and maintenance using a combination of beeswax and saliva.10 It is composed primarily of resin (50%); wax (30%); essential oils (10%); pollen (5%); and other organic compounds (5%), such as phenolic compounds, esters, flavonoids, terpenes, beta-steroids, aromatic aldehydes, and alcohols.11 It also contains a variety of vitamins (eg, B1, B2, B6, C, and E), minerals (eg, magnesium, calcium, potassium, copper, zinc, etc), and enzymes with different functions and effects.11 Like honey, propolis consumption offers a range of potential health benefits. Current evidence from both preclinical and human studies supports its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities.12–14 Other human research has suggested that propolis may have modest hepatoprotective and metabolic effects15 as well as potential applications in wound healing16,17 and oral health.18,19 However, methodological weaknesses and study limitations, including the use of surrogate biomarkers, heterogeneous propolis formulations, and short study durations, mean that further investigation is still required.17,19,20 Evidence for propolis’ anticancer activity and nephroprotective effects, although available, appears even weaker, being largely derived from in vitro and animal model studies.21 Propolis has also been investigated for potential applications in other conditions, including diabetes, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal diseases, and neurodegenerative conditions, but evidence depth and quality for these conditions also vary substantially.22 Bee pollen Bee pollen refers to the granules composed of flower pollen mixed with nectar and enzymes that are transported back to a beehive on the hind legs of worker bees to serve as a food source for the hive. There, it is stored in the hexagonal wax compartments that make up honeycomb, where it can ferment into “bee bread,” rendering it easier to digest and more stable for long-term storage.23  In addition to its nutritional role within the hive, like other bee products, bee pollen is also marketed as a dietary supplement for humans. Bee pollen is considered by some to be a “superfood” due to its wide range of nutritional compounds and microelements.24 Broadly, according to a systematic review of at least 100 studies, the composition of bee pollen is roughly the following: 54% carbohydrates, 21% proteins, 9% fiber, 5% lipids, and 3% “ash content” (minerals).25 Of note, though, its specific composition and efficacy as a supplement can be affected by factors like botanical origin, harvesting season, and processing or storage methods (eg, freeze-drying duration).24  Research suggests that bee pollen possesses a wide range of biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, and metabolic effects, along with potential cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, neuroprotective, and immunomodulatory properties.24,26,27 In parallel, research also suggests that the fermentation of bee pollen into bee bread may enhance its functional properties by breaking down pollen structures, improving nutrient bioaccessibility, enhancing antioxidant activity, and introducing lactic acid bacteria with potential gut-health benefits.28 However, the current evidence base for many of bee pollen’s proposed activities is also dominated by in vitro and animal studies, with only limited small-scale human trials available.27,29 Consequently, further large-scale, well-controlled clinical studies are still needed.24,26,27,29 Royal jelly Royal jelly, a white and viscous jelly-like substance secreted by the hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands of honeybees,30 is consumed exclusively long-term only by the queen bee, being fed to honeybee larvae for just 2 to 3 days after hatching to support maturation. Compositionally, royal jelly consists of water (50–60%), proteins (18%), carbohydrates (15%), lipids (3–6%), mineral salts (1.5%), and vitamins.11 It contains a wide range of organic compounds, including the unique “queen-maker” protein royalactin and bioactive compounds such as 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid, along with fatty acids, adenosine derivatives, acetylcholine, polyphenols, and trace hormones.11 Available research has examined royal jelly for its potential biological applications, with the strongest (human) evidence having been gathered to date for its use in managing metabolic health and menopausal symptoms.31,32 Other studies also suggest antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular effects, along with possible neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, reproductive, wound-healing, and anticancer applications, but current